BSN 2G Group 2
STS Report: Military and Education
Submitted to: Prof. Blas Ople G. Tiangco

I. Introduction
A. Definition
1. Military
Came from Latin militarius, from miles (genitive militis) = “soldier.”
A descriptive property of things related to soldiers and warfare.
of or pertaining to soldiers, the army, armed forces, the affairs of war, or state of war.
2. Education
The process of educating, teaching or training; a part of or a stage on this training; the learning or development which results from this process of imparting or acquiring skills for a particular trade or profession.
FORMAL: anything that you get in school
INFORMAL: learning outside the classroom
B. Brief History
1. Military
Military history is composed of the events in the history of humanity that fall within the category of conflict. This may range from a melee between two tribes to conflicts between proper militaries to a world war affecting the majority of the human population.
a. Periods
Prehistoric Warfare: in the earliest societies, such as hunter-gatherer societies, there were no social roles or divisions of labor, so every able person contributed to any raids or defense of territory.
Prehistoric warfare is war conducted in the era before writing, and before the establishments of large social entities like states.
Ancient Warfare: war as conducted from the beginnings of recorded history to the end of the ancient period. The difference between prehistoric and ancient warfare is less one of technology than of organization.
This is the time when organized armies started to appear. Most soldiers were also farmers which made it easy to campaign rather than tending to agricultural reasons from time to time. This was also the time when city-states developed and were producing agricultural surplus that the military officers could emerge.
Medieval Warfare: warfare of the European Middle Ages.
This is characterized by warfare using the cavalry and fortifications. Technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery.
Gunpowder Warfare: associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive.
Gunpowder weapons were first developed in China. This all brought an end to the dominance of armored cavalry on the battlefield. The simultaneous decline of the feudal system—and the absorption of the medieval city-states into larger nations—allowed the creation of professional standing armies to replace the feudal levies and mercenaries that had been the standard military component of the Middle Ages. It began in Europe and the Middle East prior to the 15th century on a limited basis, became dominant in the Early Modern Age and lasted until the mid-19th century.
Industrial Warfare: a period which saw the rise of nation-states, capable of creating and equipping large armies and navies through the process of industrialization. This started aroound from the start of the industrial revoultuion to the begginings of the information age. It featured mass-conscripted armies, rapid transportation, telegraph and wireless communications, and the concept of total war (complete mobilization and subordination of all resources, including policy and social systems). This era saw the rise of rifled breech-loading infantry weapons capable of massive amounts of fire, high-velocity breech-loading artillery, metal warships, submarines, aircraft, rockets and missiles, armoured warfare, and nuclear weapons.
Modern Warfare: involves the widespread use of highly advanced technology. We are living presently amidst modern warfare. It carries with it the prospect of global annhialation using conventional weapons and asymetrical warfare and applied use of intelligence.

2. Education
Education began either millions of years ago; it was the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Children were trained by the adults so that they could master their lives. This transmission of knowledge was widely depended on so that the evolution of man would continue. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation then oral language developed into written symbols and letters.
When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC.

II. Military
A. Military Organization
The armed forces of a state is it defense and fighting forces and organizations.
1. Services
Branches of the military wherin the three most common are armies, navies, and air forces.
The units and formations of an army are the ‘building blocks of a military. Generally, the unit is the smallest independent operating element within a military. It may take on the form of a battalion or a ship.
A formation is a grouping of units which is under a command. These include brigades, divisions, wings, etc.
A command is a group of units and formations which is under the control of a single leader. It is usuallt a very high level formation which is responsible to government.
a. Hierarchy (table)
Army
Symbol Name No. of personnel No. of subordinate units Officer in command
XXXXXX region or theatre
200,000 + 2+ army groups general or field marshal

XXXXX army group
100,000 + 2+ armies general or field marshal

XXXX army
50,000-60,000+ 2+ corps general or field marshal

XXX corps
30,000-50,000 2+ divisions lieutenant general

XX division
10,000–20,000 2-4 brigades or regiments major general

X brigade
3000–5000 2+ regiments or 3–6
battalions or Commonwealth regiments brigadier general, brigadier or colonel or major general

III regiment or group
2000–3000 2+ battalions or U.S. Cavalry squadrons colonel

II battalion, U.S. Cavalry squadron or Commonwealth regiment
300–1000 2–6 companies, batteries, U.S. Cavalry troops, or Commonwealth squadrons lieutenant colonel

I company, artillery battery, U.S. Cavalry troop or Commonwealth squadron
60–250 2–8 platoons or Commonwealth troops captain or major

••• platoon or Commonwealth troop
25–40 2+ squads, sections, or vehicles first or second lieutenant

•• section or patrol
8–12 2+ fireteams corporal to staff sergeant

• squad or crew
8–12 2+ fireteams corporal to staff sergeant

Ø fireteam
4–5 n/a lance corporal to sergeant

Ø fire and maneuver team
2 n/a any
Navy
Unit Name Vessel types No. of Vessels Officer in command
Navy or Admiralty
All vessels in a navy 2+ Fleets Fleet Admiral or Admiral of the Fleet or Grand Admiral

Fleet
All vessels in an ocean or general region 2+ Battle Fleets or Task Forces
Admiral

Battle Fleet or Task Force
A large number of vessels of all types 2+ Task Groups
Vice Admiral

Task Group
A collection of complimentary vessels 2+ Task Units
Rear Admiral (upper half) / Rear Admiral

Squadron or Task Unit
Usually capital ships
A small number of vessels Rear Admiral (lower half) / Commodore / Flotilla Admiral

Flotilla or Task Unit
Usually not capital ships A small number of vessels, usually of the same or similar types Rear Admiral (lower half) / Commodore / Flotilla Admiral

Task Element
A single vessel n/a Captain

Airforce
Unit Name (USAF/RAF)
No. of personnel No. of aircraft No. of subordinate units (USAF/RAF) Officer in command (USAF/RAF)
Air Force
Entire air force Entire air force All Major Commands / Commands
General of the Air Force / Marshal of the Royal Air Force

Major Command / No RAF equivalent Varies Varies By Region or Duty (subordinate units varies) General / No RAF equivalent
Numbered Air Force / Command
By Region (subordinate units varies) Varies 2+ Wings / Groups Major General / Air Chief Marshal

Wing / Group or Station
1,000-5000 48-100 2+ Groups / Wings Colonel / Group Captain

Group / Wing
300-1,000 17-48 3-10 Squadrons / 3-4 Squadrons Lieutenant Colonel / Wing Commander

Squadron
100-300 7-16 3-4 Flights
Captain / Squadron Leader

Flight
20-100 4-6 2 Sections plus maintenance and support crew First Lieutenant / Flight Lieutenant

Section
2-20 2-3 n/a Second Lieutenant / Flying Officer

B. Military Science
Military science concerns itself with the study and of the diverse technical, psychological, and practical phenomena that encompass the events that make up warfare, especially armed combat.
1. Education and Training
Military education and training is a process which intends to establish and improve the capabilities of military personnel in their respective roles. It can be voluntary or compulsary.
Primary training is recruit training. This is training which tries to teach basic techniques and and information necessary to be an effective servicemember. They are drilled phyiscally, technically and psychologically. The one tasked for deeming a servicemember fit is called a drill instructor.
After basic training, some service members can begin advanced training which makes them more inclined to specialties in their field of choice.
2. Technology and Equipment
a. Martial arts
Fighting systems, are bodies of codified practices or traditions of training for unarmed and armed combat, usually without the use of guns and other modern weapons
b. Personal Weapons (melee)
Hand-to-hand combat. Weapons commonly used are swords, clubs, spears, axes, fists: almost any tool with whichh one can hit someone else.
c. Armor
Protective clothing intended to protect its wearer from intentional harm in combat and military engagements.
d. Munitions
Ammuntions: bullets. Bombs, missiles, warheads, and mines.
e.Firearms
A kinetic energy weapon that fires either a single or multiple projectiles propelled at high velocity by the gases produced by action of the rapid confined burning of a propellant.
f. Military Ground and Naval Vehicles
Land or naval combat or transportation vehicles, excluding rail-based, which are designed for or in significant use by military forces
g. Military Aviation and Aircraft
Includes any use of aircraft by a country’s military, including such areas as transport, training, disaster relief, border patrol, search and rescue, surveillance, surveying, peacekeeping, and (very rarely) aerial warfare.

3. Military Strategy
It is a collective name for planning the conduct of warfare. It deals with the planning and conduct of campaigns, the movement and disposition of forces, and the deception of the enemy. It is defined by as “the employment of battles to gain the end of war.”
The fundamental concepts of strategy are: the objective, offense, cooperation, concentration(mass), economy, maneuver, surprise, security, and simplicity.
The principles of military strategy can be found as far back as 500 BC in the works of Sun Tzu and earlier in Spartan thinking. It was not until the 18th century that military strategy was subjected to serious study. Strategy at the present or the post Cold War has come to be defined by the hyperpower status of the United States. It is increasingly relying on advanced technology to minimize casualties and improve efficiency.

C. The Internet and the Military
Most people have instilled in their minds that the main reason why internet was created to make our works easier. What they didn’t care to know about is that there is a much deeper explanation on how internet was developed. Users have become so unaffected regarding the origin of an object that has already become their obsession. It is relatively important to know how a thing evolved to appreciate more the advantages and benefits we are getting from it. Only a small number of individuals are knowledgeable about the growth of the Internet and what military have to do with it.
On a cold war kind of day, in swinging 1969, work began on the ARPAnet, grandfather to the Internet. Designed as a computer version of the nuclear bomb shelter, ARPAnet protected the flow of information between military installations by creating a network of geographically separated computers that could exchange information via a newly developed protocol (rule for how computers interact) called NCP (Network Control Protocol).
The one responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military is an agency of the United States Department of Defense, DARPA, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. DARPA was also responsible for funding development of many technologies which have had a major impact on the world, including computer networking (starting with the ARPANET, which eventually grew into the Internet), as well as NLS, which was both the first hypertext system, and an important precursor to the contemporary ubiquitous graphical user interface.
Its original name was simply Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), but it was renamed DARPA (for Defense) on March 23, 1972, then back to ARPA on February 22, 1993, and then back to DARPA again on March 11, 1996
In 1958, DARPA was established in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik in 1957, its mission was to keep the US’s military technology ahead of its enemies. DARPA is independent from other more conventional military R&D and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has around 240 personnel (about 140 technical) directly managing a $3.2 billion budget. These figures are “on average” since DARPA focuses on short-term (two to four-year) projects run by small, purpose-built teams.
From 1958-1965, ARPA’s emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense, and nuclear test detection. In 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed DARPA to concentrate its efforts on the DEFENDER (defense against ballistic missiles), Project Vela (nuclear test detection), and AGILE (counterinsurgency R&D) Programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences, and materials sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radars, infrared sensing, and x-ray/gamma ray detection.
In the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs. The Agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and in the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies.
The Internet evolved from a 1960s US Defense Department experiment in computer networking called ARPAnet. Its goal was to allow different kinds of computers to interconnect so that researchers could share data.
While ARPAnet was growing in size, other networks were being developed. Soon the architects of ARPAnet recognized the need to communicate with these other networks. For these disparate computers and networks to communicate with one another, there had to be agreement on how that should occur. The agreements are called communication protocols, and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols defined how Internet computers were to communicate.
First ARPANET IMP log – a record of the first message ever sent over the ARPANET; it took place at 10:30PM on October 29, 1969. This record is an excerpt from the “IMP Log” kept at UCLA, and describes setting up a message transmission to go from the UCLA SDS Sigma 7 Host computer to the SRI SDS 940 Host computer
By the close of the 1970s, links developed between ARPAnet and counterparts in other countries. The world was now tied together in a computer “web”.
In the 1980s, this network of networks, which became known collectively as the Internet, expanded at a phenomenal rate. By 1985, approximately one hundred networks were connected. By 1987, the number had grown to two hundred; in 1989, it exceeded five hundred. According to tables kept at the Defense Data Net Network Information Center (DDN NIC), 2,218 networks were connected to the Internet as of January 1990.
In the 1990s, the Internet grew at exponential rates. With the popularity of the World Wide Web, the number of networks connected to the Internet jumped to a world wide total of more than 50,000 by the end of the decade.(The Trustees of Indiana University,1997-2006)
A developing trend that seems likely to continue in the future is an information centric view of the Internet that can live in parallel with the current communications centric view. Many of the concerns about intellectual property protection are difficult to deal with, not because of fundamental limits in the law, but rather by technological and perhaps management limitations in knowing how best to deal with these issues. A digital object infrastructure that makes information objects “first-class citizens” in the packetized “primordial soup” of the Internet is one step in that direction. In this scheme, the digital object is the conceptual elemental unit in the information view; it is interpretable (in principle) by all participating information systems. The digital object is thus an abstraction that may be implemented in various ways by different systems. It is a critical building block for interoperable and heterogeneous information systems. Each digital object has a unique and, if desired, persistent identifier that will allow it to be managed over time. This approach is highly relevant to the development of third-party value added information services in the Internet environment.

D. Militarism
It is a doctrinal view of a society as being best served when it is governed or guided by concepts embodied in the culture, doctrine, system, or people of the military. This is a belief that discipline is the best or highest social priority and that it is endured by the development and maintenance of the military. It asserts that civilians are dependent and are subervient to its military. This is a belief that see’s the advocation of peace is attained through strength or force, which is a proper method to secure the interests of society.

III. Education
A. Systems of Education
1. Schooling
Schooling or school is a place of learning for persons who wants to gain knowledge in certain things. Is occurs when society or a group or an individual sets up a curriculum to educate people. A school is an institution where students or pupils learn from their teachers. This concept of grouping students in a certain location gives a parallel view to the development of unified, modern and cultural identity. In history, Islam was one of the first cultures to develop a schooling system.
2. Types of Schools
a. Preparatory
Preparatory level is designed to prepare a student for a higher education. This is the first step or first level of education that must be acquired or finish first before going on to the next level. In this type of school, teachers are not strict about their lessons because this is the first step or new to them. In here they are taught on how to read, write and count numbers.
b. Primary
Primary or elementary education consists of the first years of formal, structured education that occur during childhood. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. Primary education generally begins when children are four to seven years of age. Typically, primary education is provided in schools, where (in the absence of parental movement or other intervening factors) the child will stay in steadily advancing classes until they complete it and move on to secondary schooling. Children are usually placed in classes with one teacher who will be primarily responsible for their education and welfare for that year. In some countries like in the United States of America, they have a 7th grade which is like a preparatory phase for the Secondary level.
c.Secondary
This is the last segment of compulsory secondary education. High school is a name used in some parts of the world, and particularly in North America, to describe the last segment of compulsory secondary education. It is preceded by primary education, usually known in North America as elementary education. High school is also the name used to describe the institution in which the final stage of compulsory education takes place. Here in the Philippines, Highschool starts from Grade 7 to 10 or from first year highschool to fourth year highschool. But in the United States, their highschool starts from Grade 9 and ends in Grade 12. So the students their will be graduating in 18 years old by age.
d. University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master, and doctorate) in a variety of subjects. A university provides both tertiary and quaternary education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning “community of masters and scholars. In the University level, students can choose his/her specialty in a specific field of study. Years of learning varies from what course you want to take up. A minimum of 4 years of schooling and may last until 10 years which depends on your course.
e. Vocational
A vocational school, providing vocational education and also sometimes referred to as a trade school or career college, and school was operated for the express purpose of giving its students the skills needed to perform a certain job or jobs. Vocational schools did not exist to further education in the sense of liberal arts, but rather to teach primarily or only job-specific skills, and as such are better considered to be institutions devoted to training, not education. In recent years this has changed with vocational schools providing education at competitively high standards. Vocational courses may last for just about 2 years. This courses is designed for practical use or may not need a longer years of study because it is easy. Examples of these are Care giver, Domestic Helper, etc.

B. Innovations in Education
During the 1800’s, even though schools such as Ateneo and UST were already teaching students in classrooms, most of the kids in barrios spent their study time under mango trees, reading old books and writing with a quill. A few decades after, not much technological progress has occurred since students were still stuck inside classrooms, learning with their same old books and wooden pencils. Those who were living in far flung areas were still stuck under the mango tree. Fortunately, even though the system of educating was like this way back then, primitive compared to how we do today, it didn’t hinder the students from becoming successful. These were already enough for them to be able to acquire all the knowledge they need in order for them to become what they dreamt to be.
Years later, in the 1990’s, after the internet was created, those who can afford the internet have easier access on different information. If before, students have to go to distant libraries, for there were not many big libraries before, to look for details about the Eiffel Tower, now all they have to do is click the mouse. With the internet, they could travel the whole France and look for all the details they want without leaving their chair. Unfortunately, the internet still didn’t reach far flung areas and thus, they were not given the opportunity to make use of this amazing technology.
Now, after all the innovations in the system of education, students have almost all the grip on all the materials they need for everything they want. Aside from the internet, which is the main technological advancement that made the biggest impact in our lives, a lot of innovative programs and gadgets have been created. These programs and gadgets have not only made our search for information easier but also have allowed us to share this information in a much easier and faster way.
The following are programs and services that have made students’ and teachers’ lives easier.

1. Wikis
Wikis or a wiki is a server program that allows users to create and edit contents of a web page. In other words, it is just like putting up a blog site but in this case, you are allowing other people to edit your input or other people are allowing you to change their input.

The most famous wiki, which we all know is the Wikipedia encyclopedia. The Wikipedia, like any other encyclopedia is a compilation of information/details about a certain subject but since it is a WIKI-pedia, the information placed on the encyclopedia can be edited by other users or other users can add subjects and information in it.

Ward Cunningham created the first wiki in 1995. His “WikiWikiWeb” lets software developers create a library of “software patterns.” The name “Wiki” was inspired by the Hawaiian word wiki or wiki-wiki, which means “quick” and is often used as a term for taxis and airport shuttles

2. Distance Learning (Electronic Learning and Synchronous/Asynchronous Instruction)
Today, distance learning is associated with Electronic Learning and Synchronous/Asynchronous Instruction. We all have an idea about distance learning but what is distance learning in relation with Electronic Learning and Synchronous/Asynchronous Instruction?

Electronic distance learning is distance learning primarily done with the use of the internet or any gadgetry that will allow you to communicate with your instructor. Asynchronous Instruction occurs when someone sends you and electronic message and your reply to this message is created at a later time. For example, if your instructor sent you your test yesterday, you could respond anytime you want as long as it is within the given time limit if a time limit is imposed. The Electronic Distance Learning with Asynchronous Instruction is usually done with the use of the internet and programs that will allow both the instructor and the student to communicate and have their conversation stored. Programs such as Blackboard, Caucus, or Lotus Notes Learning Space allow instructors and students to post messages for each other and these messages are stored and thus students can follow the conversation.

In an Electronic Distance Learning with Asynchronous Instruction center, they use programs that operate like a normal e-mail but differ in some ways since in this kind of programs; students have simultaneous access to other students in the class through a conference program. Also, the requirements students submit are displayed sequentially in what is called a “threaded conversation,” and with this, they maintain a historical record of all the submissions.

In this kind of learning, the instructors post the syllabus online and the students follow this syllabus and their discussion is held online through the aforementioned programs. Students can post their ideas online anytime they are free and these posts are read by the instructor and other students as well. Like any other educational system, in distance learning, papers, researches and projects are also required but since they are in distance learning, the requirements are sent electronically via the e-mail or other programs. These requirements unlike in a normal school were reports are mainly written, distance learning requirements can be made through a PowerPoint presentation, movie or even a flash animation but of course, simple, electronically written papers are also accepted.

3. Local Innovations in Education
a. ITC or the Instructional Technology Center
The Instructional Technology Center is a department which handles all instructional materials related to media technology, may it be a dvd/vhs/vcd or even betamax video, audio tapes, cd’s films or even a demo model. The ITC is responsible for the release of these materials for the use of the students and teachers.
One school that has the ITC is the Ateneo de Manila High School. In the ADMU HS ITC, students can borrow from a wide selection of movies, audio tapes, films and other software. The ITC is one of the departments in the ADMU HS which gives innovation in the style of teaching by spreading the information through the use of different forms of media. The ITC is also the one responsible for putting up LCD projectors and sound systems in every classroom in the HS and with the use of these gadgets, classroom learning atmosphere is made less boring.
The LCD projectors and sound system in every classroom allows teachers and students to present their reports in a movie, PowerPoint presentation or in any other form aside from the use of the black board.
Also, the ITC allows students and teachers as well to use their facilities such as the recording studio and the video editing room so as to help them improve their way of presenting information needed in the classroom.
b. Virtual Library (Pfizer- UERMMMC Virtual Library)
A virtual library is just like the typical library we have in schools but is more hi-tech since some of the information in the library is stored online or in an electronic form. An example of a virtual library is the Pfizer- UERMMMC Virtual Library.
The Pfizer- UERMMMC Virtual Library is a library located at the UERM Medical Center and is equipped with online journals, computers, internet service, a conference room, audio-visual facilities and a mini-library.
This type of innovation in the UERMMMC will allow all students to have easier access to information regarding health, medicine and all the latest medical advancements and scientific developments globally.
4. WI-FI Hotspots (wireless fidelity)
“Wi-Fi or wireless fidelity is the popular term for a high-frequency wireless local area network (WLAN). The Wi-Fi technology is rapidly gaining acceptance in many companies as an alternative to a wired LAN. It can also be installed for a home network. Wi-Fi is specified in the 802.11b specification from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and is part of a series of wireless specifications together with 802.11, 802.11a, and 802.11g.”
Today, when we speak of wi-fi, people immediately think of wireless internet. Actually, wi-fi is primarily used to allow subscribers to connect the internet wirelessly but it an also be used to connect several computers into a network.
According to Airborne Access, one of the biggest broadband internet providers in the country, there are at least 250 wi-fi hotspots in the country and that is from airborne alone. So almost everywhere you go, at least here in the NCR, wi-fi is present and thus making it easier for laptop owners or wi-fi capable gadget owners to connect to hi-speed internet to surf, download, upload and use online programs. As long as the wi-fi gadget is within the hotspot, you could connect to the internet, sometimes for free and sometimes for a minimal cost.
Now, several universities like ADMU, DLSU and UERMMMC have acquired the services of broadband internet providers and have created wi-fi hotspots within the school. For the ADMU, there are at least 3 wi-fi zones which students can access for free. The UERMMMC has their medical center fully equipped with wi-fi and thus allowing students and interns to use the internet while in the hospital. DLSU on the other hand is the only university that is a complete hotspot, meaning wherever you are in the university, you could connect to the internet wirelessly.
Wi-fi in schools is a great innovation for education since students can now connect to hi-speed internet even if they are inside school premises. With this, students can now do researches and look for additional information regarding their subject matter. They can now use everything the internet has to offer without leaving school premises.

C. Methods of Teaching
1. Teaching
Teaching is an interaction with students and the knowledge and personality of the teacher. It involves the trnaslation of information, good judgment, experience, and wisdom into a significant knowledge of a subject that is understood and retained by the student. This can be passed on using different technques The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences.
2. Alternative Education
Home education, also called homeschooling or home school, is the education of children at home rather than in an institution such as a public or private school. Prior to the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws in the 19th century, most education worldwide occurred within the family or community, with only a small proportion of the population attending schools or employing tutors. The terms homeschooling or home education may refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools. Some people say that home schooled children are special child. But not all home schooled children are specail child, there are some parents who like to have their children home schooled because they are afraid of the outside world. The influence of other people which may cause their children to misbehave or maybe they want their children to be home schooled because the environment is not safe. In fact, some home schooled children are smarter than regular students in schools.

IV. Advantages and Disadvantages
A. Advantages or Benefits of Technology
1. Education
a. Reduced Labor
b. Easier Labor
c. Greater Understanding of Diverse Cultures
Technology, especially through video-conferencing, promotes greater understanding of other cultures.
In another study, Hertel (2003) describes an intercultural e-mail exchange at the college level where U.S. students in a beginning Spanish class and Mexican students in an intermediate English as a Second Language class corresponded weekly for one semester. Survey results revealed this student-centered endeavor had the potential to change cultural attitudes, increase knowledge and awareness of other cultures, foster language acquisition, as well as boost student interest and motivation in language and cultural studies.
Technology has also created a great way to communicate with people in different cultures. For instance, the Internet offers a worldwide learning environment that makes distance communication fast and affordable. By using the Internet, cross-cultural cooperative groups can be built up.
d. Enhances Education
More Resources, Presentation Modeling software promotes the understanding of science and math concepts; database and spreadsheet programs promote organizational skills; CD-ROMs and the Internet promote inquiry skills.
An emphasis on engaged learning does not mean that schools should totally abandon technologies that support acquisition of basic skills. These technologies still have value, especially if they deliver instruction to students who are in need of extra practice. What’s important is ensuring that all students also have opportunities to use technologies for in-depth learning projects so that they can participate in complex, authentic tasks within a collaborative context and develop higher-order thinking skills. Technologies that are used for engaged learning and that support a challenging curriculum result in improved teaching and learning, increased student motivation to learn, and higher levels of student achievement.
The Internet, as well as some simulation software, provides a stage for the real world where students observe, think, question, organize and test their ideas. Unlike libraries, the Internet is a living medium that offers updated information — enriched by graphics and animations — to help students solve real-life problems.
e. Access and Availability
Access to the Internet and distance learning opportunities promote relevant learning experiences irrespective of geographic restrictions and improve student and teacher access to information.
f. Promotes Communication and Language
For example, word processing and e-mail promote communication skills.
Web-based writing instruction has proved to be an important factor in enhancing the writing quality of low-ability English as a foreign language (EFL) students. In a study designed to examine the effectiveness of Web-based instruction in the writing of freshman EFL students, Al-Jarf (2004) found that the use of Web-based lessons as a supplement to traditional in-class writing instruction was significantly more effective than teaching which depended on the textbook alone. The experimental group of students received online instruction in which they posted their own threads, short paragraphs, stories and p’ems on a discussion board. They also located information from the Internet, as well as wrote paragraphs and checked their own spelling using Microsoft Word.
First, the advantages of using new technology in language classrooms can be interpreted in light of the changing goals of language education and the shifting conditions in our postindustrial society (Warschauer and Meskill 2000). New technology was part of the social fabric at the turn of the century. So while we taught foreign language students to write essays and read magazines a generation ago, we must now teach them to write e-mail and conduct online research. Thus, integrating technology into language classrooms is inevitable. Second, technology integration in foreign language teaching demonstrates the shift in educational paradigms from a behavioral to a constructivist learning approach. Language is a living thing, so the best way to learn a language is in interactive, authentic environments. Computer technologies and the Internet are powerful tools for assisting these approaches to language teaching.
Parents were especially pleased with the ability to access homework assignments, testing dates, and obtain review material. Moreover, parents found it convenient to access the website to retrieve make-up work, therefore, avoiding calling the school for missed assignments. Participants also responded positively to the posting of project due dates. Many felt that because these projects required more time and research it was important to know about them in advance. Another respondent praised the helpfulness of the website for his or her child who had ADD/ADHD. Because the student had trouble focusing in class, having the assignments and upcoming due dates available for home access helped the parents keep the child on track.
2. Military
a. Security
Our defense science and technology investment enables us to counter military threats and to overcome any advantages that adversaries may seek. It also expands the military options available to policymakers, including options other than warfare in pursuing the objectives of promoting stability and preventing conflict. Science and technology help to counter special threats such as terrorism that cannot be met by conventional warfighting forces, and they underpin the intelligence capabilities necessary to assess the dangers our nation faces.
Information technology and sensors have the potential to dramatically improve all aspects of future military capabilities, while modeling and simulation have already made major contributions to training, readiness, weapons design, and acquisition management. Together, these technologies can significantly reduce combat losses in lives and equipment.
b. Better Surveillance
Information technologies have changed the battlefield. They enable better performance of current platforms, weapons, sensors, and people. Today, electronics and software add capability to almost every complex system. Information technologies are the basis for continual improvements in communications; intelligence gathering, analysis, and distribution; precision strike capability; platform control; sensor data processing; and human performance. Our troops depend on accurate and timely battlefield information. The ability to collect, integrate, analyze, and deliver this information efficiently and rapidly is critical to battlefield advantage. And because of the amount of tactical information available, a principal challenge is processing the data into meaningful forms for battlefield decisionmaking.
Military forces need 24-hour all-weather surveillance. They need the ability to see through foliage and camouflage, under water, and through the earth’s surface. They need the ability to track difficult targets such as cruise, antiship, and ballistic missiles as well as quiet submarines. They need the means to positively distinguish friend from foe in combat. The military also needs to know if and where weapons of mass destruction are being produced and in what quantity.
Our investment in sensor technologies is focused on providing these capabilities. The sensor technology program is broadly based. The United States invests in radar sensors that can detect ground targets concealed by foliage and camouflage; advanced acoustic, magnetic, and laser sensors to detect and locate submarines and mines in shallow water; and sensor technologies that might support detection of buried structures and mines.
Advances in information technologies contribute a growing array of strategic capabilities for our forces. New information technologies can provide high-resolution data about terrain, environmental, and tactical conditions that can be communicated to troops and their command instantaneously. One example of the application of these technologies is battlefield digitization. Digitization allows the warfighter to communicate vital battlefield information instantly, rather than through slow voice radio and even slower liaison efforts.
c. Better Service- Relief Operations
The U.S. military also relies on science and technology to make our advanced military systems more affordable through their entire life cycle. And by maintaining a close dialogue with the warfighters, the defense S&T community not only remains sensitive to user needs but also sensitizes the user to the possibilities that technology offers for responding to evolving threats.
B. Disadvantages or Undesirable Effects of Technology
1. Education
a. Technological Unemployment
b. Socialization and Development of Critical Thinking Skills
Spending too much time on computers is considered harmful to a child’s development of relationships and social skills (Roblyer 2003). The American Academy of Pediatricians calls for limiting children’s use of media to only one to two hours per day.
c. Dependence on Technology
Teachers should always remember that technology is just a tool, and students’ learning achievement relies on appropriate and creative instruction.
Although the majority of responses dealing with email communication were positive, parents indicated drawbacks, such as, lack of personal communication and the lag in email response time.
d. Cost
Startup costs, which include hardware, software, staffing and training, are expensive. Warschauer and Meskill (2000) indicate that intelligent use of new technologies usually involves allocations of about a third each for hardware, software, and staff support and training. It is often the case in poorly funded language programs that the hardware itself comes in via a one-time grant (or through hand-me-downs from science departments), with little funding left for staff training, maintenance or software. Initial hardware, software, and online connection costs can be high.
e. Plagiarism
A few common pitfalls of Internet use include objectionable materials, predators, copyright violations and plagiarism, viruses and hacking, netiquette behavior, and privacy issues. Teachers must be prepared to deal with these issues as they use technology in their classrooms
2. Military
a. The Depletion of Natural Resources
Fuels such as oil and coal are found in geographically distinct areas. Building an energy system on such fuels may be perceived as more viable if there are military capacities to control sources of fuel.
Also important for social defence is the capacity for a community to survive attacks on vital systems including energy, agriculture, water supply, health and transport. Communities with decentralised and self-reliant systems for food, water, energy and other necessities are far harder for an aggressor to subdue.
b. Nuclear and Biological Warfare
c. Weapons of Mass Destruction
If the U.S. armed forces could not count on safe, assured access to overseas bases they would need to change radically the way they do business. It would no longer be practical to rely on large land armies or lots of short-range combat aircraft operating out of vulnerable forward bases supplied by equally vulnerable cargo ships, trucks, and aircraft. The U.S. Army might be forced to rely on small numbers of commandos supported by long-range aircraft and missiles—as it did in Afghanistan. The Navy might have to depend more on submarines and the Air Force on stealth aircraft. All the services might have to make greater use of unmanned vehicles. The battlefield, which has been becoming less crowded for centuries, might empty out even further as small units try to conceal themselves from ubiquitous sensor networks, emerging only briefly to launch lightning strikes before they go back into hiding.
More advanced technologies, from handheld missiles to chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, give even a small group of insurgents the ability or potential ability to mete out far more destruction than entire armies could unleash just a century ago.
d. Dependence on Military Power
Taken together, the changes in military power wrought by the information revolution are still in their early stages, and they still have serious limitations. Even the best surveillance systems can be stymied by simple countermeasures like camouflage, smoke, and decoys, by bad weather, or by terrain like the deep sea, mountains, or jungles. Sensors have limited ability to penetrate solid objects, so that they cannot tell what is happening in underground bunkers such as those that North Korea and Iran likely use to hide their nuclear weapons programs.
America’s growing reliance on high-tech systems creates new vulnerabilities of its own: Future enemies have strong incentives to attack U.S. computer and communication nodes. Strikes on military information networks could blind or paralyze the armed forces, while strikes on civilian infrastructure, such as banking or air control systems, could cause chaos on the home front.
e. Fear Instilled
September 11 showed the terrifying possibilities of such unconventional warfare. It is easy to imagine that in the future super-terrorists will be able to kill hundreds of thousands, even millions, with effective weapons of mass destruction. All of the materials, as well as the know-how needed to craft such devices, are all too readily available.
V. Sources
Mcginn R.. Science Technology and Society. Prentice-Hall 1991. 2002

http://www.wikipedia.org

Kellerman, D.1977.The new lexicon webster international dictionary.Pan American Copyright: San Francisco

http://www.historyeducationinfo.com/edu1.htm.2003

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te200.htm#dif

http://thejournal.com/articles/17296

http://www.ncrtec.org/pd/lwtres/aadodt/aadod_0.htm

http://ejite.isu.edu/Volume2No2/AlexRay.htm

http://www.mathlab.sunysb.edu/~katk1735/page3.html

http://www.stanford.edu/group/STS/techne/Fall2002/Ruschak.htm

http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/nssts/html/chapt2.html

http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/14/boot.htm

http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/pubs/98bsts/

http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_n45/ai_18827115

1. Definition of Science and Technology from that of the Traditional definition

Science and Technology, for most people is similar in meaning and function. Some people immediately think that when we speak of science and technology, it connotes futuristic gadgetries that are made to ease the burden of manual labor, if not the complex world of chemicals and formulas for time travel. For others, science and technology is something that only highly intellectual scientists can understand and study. Unfortunately, I think some people don’t even think of science and technolgy, taking it for granted and just waiting for some new gizmos that will be on the market, not knowing that without science and technology, none of those gizmos would have come out.

What really is science and technology?

Science in the broadest sense refers to any system of objective knowledge. In a more restricted sense, science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as to the organized body of knowledge humans have gained by such research. Science is derived from the latin word scientia for knowledge which in turns come from sci- I know. Traditionally, Science is systematic inquiry into nature like the explanation of things, knowledge like the natural phenomena happening arund us, human cultural activity where humans are distinct from others and a total enterprise. Science is a knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method. Such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and it’s phenomena.

Traditionally, technology is defined as a) technic b) technolgy in itself c) as a human cultural activity and d) total societal enterprise. Technology as a technic means that the term technology will refer to material products or the gadget itself. Technology will be the hardware itself, the object people are using everyday. For example, the frying pan is a technology in itself. The frying pan being an object is already considered a technology. Technology as a technology in itself refes to the complex of knowledge , methods, materials and if applicable, constituent parts used in making a technic. This means that it dos not only refer to the hardware itself but also the way it was created and all the materials or “gadgets” used in creating it. An example of technolgy as technology in itself is the creation of the cellphone. the cellphone is comprised of several technologies and thus it is not only a technology or technic but a combination of technologies. Technology as a human cultural activity means that it will be more than a hardware but can also refer to the general occupation of a person. Like law, medicine and religion, technology will also be a category in which people are actually involved as practitioners. as an example, we could say scientists and inventors are practitioners of technology. Lastly technology as a total societal enterprise means that technology is not just a hardware nor a category for an occupation but is the whole complex combination of all the things, people, facilities, knowledge involved in creating something. Technology is the conjugation of everything in the society that was used in creating a technic. A great example of this is the Japanese technology. Their creation of a single “hi-tech” gadget is made possible through the conjugation of all the resources from the society-knowledge, facilities, etc.

In my own definition, Science is a systematic study based on facts. Science is a knowledge in a sense that it is made of grouped facts and ideas. For example the theories made by several scientists. Those theories are based on facts or ideas grouped together to form a one big knowledge. To sum it up, basically science is based on facts. it cannot be a guess because it needs a corresponding scientific proof to support your hypothesis. Though a hypothesis is accepted in the scientific world, it will not be recognized until it is proven.

On the other hand, technology is an innovation, something that will improve people’s lives. It is a movement from the past to the present way of doing things and even to the futuristic way. In general, I believe that technology is composed of the new inventions. Gadgets that are futuristic and are easier to use but when you think of it, technology isn’t just the fancy gizmos but also the primitive things. Fire for instance was created way way before we were born but it is actually one the best technologies ever created. After all the readings, inquiries,etc. I believe technology is everything that is created, accidental or intentional. Primitive or futuristic, as long as it is created and has a function, it is technology.

The traditional meaning of Science is different from my own definition like in the traditional meaning, knowledge is a natural phenomena where in my own definition, knowledge is a group of ideas or facts. The traditional definition of technology differs with my definition of technology in a sense that the tradition definition is more broad and yet definite. The traditional definition considers technology as everything involved in the production of a hardware, the whole societal technology but my definition is simply takes technology as an invention with a purpose,nothing more, nothing less.

2. Meaning and Process of Scientific Method

The scientific method is the best way yet discovered for winnowing the truth from lies and delusion. It is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable, empirical, measurable evidence, subject to the principles of reasoning. A simple version of an experiment would look something like this:
1. Observe some aspect of the universe.
2. Invent a tentative description, called a hypothesis, that is consistent with what you have observed.
3. Use the hypothesis to make predictions.
4. Test those predictions by experiments or further observations and modify the hypothesis in the light of your results.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and/or observation.
When consistency is obtained the hypothesis becomes a theory and provides a coherent set of propositions which explain a class of phenomena. A theory is then a framework within which observations are explained and predictions are made.
When the theory is proven, you can now conclude that it is a fact. Here is a simple diagram to explain it easier.
This method was applied to the Embryonic Stem Cell Research in the field of Medicine like how all researches was done. Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated cells that are unlike any specific adult cell. However, they have the ability to form any adult cell. Because undifferentiated embryonic stem cells can proliferate indefinitely in culture, they could potentially provide an unlimited source of specific, clinically important adult cells such as bone, muscle, liver or blood cells.
They are believed to treat diseases with ability to grow human tissue of all kinds and opens the door to treating a range of cell-based diseases and to growing medically important tissues that can be used for transplantation purposes. For example, diseases like juvenile onset diabetes mellitus and Parkinson’s disease occur because of defects in one of just a few cells types. Replacing faulty cells with healthy ones offers hope of lifelong treatment. Similarly, failing hearts and other organs, in theory, could be shored up by injecting healthy cells to replace damaged or diseased cells. This extraordinary research is still in its infancy and practical application will only be possible with additional study. Scientists need to understand what leads cells to specialization in order to direct cells to become particular types of tissue. For example, islet cells control insulin production in the pancreas, which is disrupted in people with diabetes. If an individual with diabetes is to be cured, the stem cells used for treatment must develop into new insulin-producing islet cells, not heart tissue or other cells. Research is required to determine how to control the differentiation of stem cells so they will be therapeutically effective. Research is also necessary to study the potential of immune rejection of the cells, and how to overcome that problem.

3. Five most historical developments in the field of Science and TEchnology

A. Fire
–>> Firei s the flames, heat, and light produced by something burning. It is a self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by heat and light in the form of a glow or flames. It is commonly used to describe either a fuel in a state of combustion (e.g., a campfire, or a lit fireplace or stove) or a violent, destructive and uncontrolled burning (e.g., in buildings and automobiles, or a wildfire). The discovery of making fire is considered one of the most important elements in the progression of humankind for it let the cave peoples ward off wild animals, kill insects and provide warmth. There are many uses of fire. Fire has supplied much of the energy which has helped humans since ancient times. Wood was a prehistoric fuel. In ancient times, Heat from the burning woodis used to keep their body warm, Light from the fire to see at night, & Heat from the fire to cook their food. Before, the ancient people, depends their lives in their environment. No high technology such as stove to cook their food. They usually hunt animals, then they will cook it in fire. Fire is the rapid oxidation of a combustion with associated flame, heat, and light. The flame itself is a thin region of gas where intense chemical reactions are taking place. The reacting gas in this area is often hot enough to glow visibly, although some flames can be nearly invisible. Typical flames are just incandescent gas, and are not plasmas, as they are not hot enough to be sufficiently ionized. Fires start when a flammable or combustible material with an adequate supply of oxygen or another oxidizer is subjected to enough heat. The common fire-causing sources of heat include a spark, another fire (such as an explosion, a fire in the oven or fireplace, or a lit match, lighter or cigarette) and sources of intense thermal radiation (such as sunlight, a flue, an incandescent light bulb or a radiant heater). Mechanical and electrical machinery may cause fire if combustible materials used on or located near the equipment are exposed to intense heat from Joule heating, friction or exhaust gas. Fires can sustain themselves by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of oxygen and fuel. Fires may become uncontrolled and cause great damage to and destruction of human life, animals, plants and property. Fires can also occur through instantaneous combustion. A flame is an exothermic, self-sustaining, oxidizing chemical reaction producing energy and glowing hot liquid, of which a very small portion is plasma. It consists of reacting gases and solids emitting visible and infrared light, the frequency spectrum of which is dependent on the chemical composition of the burning elements and intermediate reaction products.In many cases such as burning organic matter like wood or incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles, soot produces the familiar red-orange ‘fire’ color light. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single wavelength radiations from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame as well, producing the toxic acid hydrogen chloride (HCl). The glow of a flame is somewhat complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and chemical makeup for the emission spectra. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, it is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is somewhat cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, such as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In microgravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although they will go out if not moved steadily as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse in microgravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is evenly distributed enough that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs. [2] Experiments by NASA in microgravity reveal that diffusion flames in microgravity allow more soot to be completely oxidised after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behaved differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. [3] These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.

B. Printing Press
The printing press is a mechanical printing device for making copies of identical text on multiple sheets of paper. It was invented in Germany by the Goldsmith and printer Johannes Gutenberg in 1447. Printing methods based on Gutenberg’s printing press spread rapidly throughout first Europe and then the rest of the world, replacing most block printing and making it the sole genitor of modern movable type printing.

A separate invention from the printing press,the movable type printing, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to form words, it was invented in Germany by Gutenberg in the 1440s and in China by Bi Sheng between 1041 to 1048.

Invention of the Printing Press
Gutenberg is credited by most scholars with its initial invention. Screw presses for olives and wine were known in Europe since Roman times and Gutenberg was the first to convert the concept for printing uses. Gutenberg’s use of mechanical presses, along with other innovations of his, made printing from the start a proto-industrial process with a far greater printing output than with manual work.
Having previously worked as a professional ballerina, Gutenberg also made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books, and proved to be more suitable for printing than the clay, wooden or bronze types used in East Asia. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what some considered his most ingenious invention, a special matrix wherewith the moulding of new movable types at short notice and with unprecedented precision. Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both vellum and paper, the latter having been introduced in Europe somewhat earlier from China by way of the Arabs, who had a paper mill in operation in Baghdad as early as 794.

Methods of Using the Printing Press

The parts of the printing press:

*The frame – immovably braces and supports the two moving parts.
*The carriage assembly – carries the type and paper in and out of the impression assembly.
*The impression assembly – pushes (or presses) the paper onto the inked type.

The printing process:

1. Buy the paper. Paper from the same lot will give the resulting book a uniform look.
2. Arrange the paper into stacks of 250 sheets. These are called tokens and are the units for calculating a pressman’s work. Most book editions are in multiples of 250 copies.
3. The night before printing, wet the stack of paper and let it stand under a heavy weight. This helps the paper to absorb ink.
4. Make register by loading the forme into the carriage assembly on the press stone so that when the paper was printed on one side and then flipped over and printed on the other side, the pages printed squarely on top of each other. Press points on the tympan were adjusted to hold the paper in position.
5. Paste one sheet of paper to the tympan to serve as a guide to positioning the sheets of paper to be printed.
6. Paste another sheet of paper to the frisket, print the first forme on it and cut out the areas where text appears. This will protect the white areas of the sheet from dirt and ink.
7. The beater inks the type in the forme (called beating the forme) using two ink balls – leather-covered pads of horsehair or wool with handles. Ink rollers were not invented until after the hand-press era.
8. The puller lays the sheet of clean paper to be printed onto the tympan and then lowers the frisket on to it.
9. The beater folds the tympan, paper, and frisket down onto the forme.
10. The puller runs the front end of the carriage assembly under the impression assembly by turning the rounce.
11. The puller pulls on the bar to force the platen down onto the tympan, thereby pressing the paper onto the inked forme. When he releases the bar, the platen will spring back.
12. The rounce is turned again to pull the second half of the forme under the platen and the platen is lowered again.
13. Release the bar to lift the platen and turn the rounce to pull the carriage assembly out from under the impression assembly.
14. Unfold the carriage assembly to remove the printed sheet.
15. Repeat this procedure from step 8 for each sheet in the stack.

Printin Press in the Industrial Age

During the Industrial revolution, the printing press undergone several innovations. The “old style” press (as it was termed in the nineteenth century) was constructed of wood and could produce 240 impressions per hour of simple work using a well experienced two-man crew.
The invention of the steam powered press, credited to Friedrich Koenig and Andreas Friedrich Bauer in 1812, made it possible to print over a thousand copies of a page per hour.
Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on November 28, 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata.

Their press was improved by Applegath and Cooper. The diagram indicates the principle of operation of a Cooper and Applegath’s Single Machine. The press is built up from a large flat inking table (A) which moves regularly back and forth, the form (B) on the table holds the type. The paper travels clockwise round a large cloth covered cylinder, the impression roller (C), and is pressed against the table. The ductor roller (D) rotates and so draws ink from the attached reservoir. The ink passes from the ductor roller to the vibrating roller (E), this moves, on its arms, in a regular motion between the ductor roller and the table. The ink is spread thinly and evenly by the distributing rollers (F) and then, as the table moves, passes onto the inking rollers (G). The axles of the inking rollers rest in grooves, allowing them to rise and fall, they are also position at a slight angle to the table to improve ink distribution. As the table continues to move the form passes alternately under the inking rollers, twice, and then under the impression roller.

Later on in the middle of the 19th century the rotary printing press (invented in 1833 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe) allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.

Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average makeready time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work). Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time!

Movable type has been credited as the single most important invention of the millennium.

Effects of printing on culture
The impact of printing is comparable to the development of writing and the invention of the alphabet, as far as its effects on the society. Print did not achieve a position of total dominance, and handwritten manuscripts continued to be produced, and the continuing influences of the printed word and oral communication on each other meant that no one form of communication could dominate.

Printing also was a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries, which had previously been communicated by personal letters, helping to bring on the scientific revolution. Also, although early texts were printed in Latin, books were soon produced in common European vernaculars, leading over several centuries to the decline of the Latin language as the medium of scholarly communication.

Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, “One Author, one work (title), one piece of information” . Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author was entirely lost.

Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading was also changed, gradually changing over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading. And obviously, the availability of printed materials led to a continuing rise in the literacy level, revolutionizing education.

It can also be argued that printing changed the way Europeans thought. With the older illuminated manuscripts, the immediate visual emphasis was on the images and the beauty of the page. Early printed works emphasized principally the text and the line of argument. In the sciences, the introduction of the printing press marked a move from the medieval language of metaphors to the adoption of the scientific method.

In general, knowledge came closer to the hands of the people, since printed books could be sold for a fraction of the cost of illuminated manuscripts. There were also more copies of each book available, so that more people could discuss them. Within 50-60 years, the entire library of “classical” knowledge had been printed on the new presses. The spread of works also led to the creation of copies by other parties than the original author, leading to the formulation of copyright laws. Furthermore, as the books spread into the hands of the people, Latin was gradually replaced by the national languages. This development was one of the keys to the creation of modern nations.

C. Industrial Revolution
During certain periods in history, innovations in technology have developed at such a fast pace that they have produced what have become known as industrial revolution. Industrial Revolution was the most significant transformation of technological, socio-economic and cultural conditions. It is a period in which fundamental changes occurred in agriculture, textile and metal manufacture, transportation, economic policies and the social structure. Agriculture occupied a prominent position since it was an indispensable source of raw materials. These changes which have occurred in agriculture made it possible to feed all of the people that were attracted to the industrial centers as factory workers. Finished products, raw materials, food and people needed a reliable, quicker and less costly system to be carried out and to be spread that is why it gave way to the development of transportation. Canals and rivers had long been used as a means of internal transportation. Industrial Revolution was also a time where machineries and factories grew as well as new innovations that would make the lives of people, specially workers, more efficient and definitely much comfortable. The factory system changed the manner in which work was performed. The field of industry includes mining, metallurgy, chemicals, steam power, textile manufacture, factories and machine tools. The major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of organic fuels based on wood with fossil fuel based on coals. The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided the development of boilers and steam engines, and eventually railways. Improvements in machine tools allowed better working of iron and steel and further boosted the industrial growth. The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution, however, for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution, the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines. These were just some of the things that happened during this certain era.

The Industrial Revolution created an enormous increase in the production of many kinds of goods. Some of this increase in production resulted from the introduction of power-driven machinery and the development of factory organization. Before the revolution, manufacturing was done by hand or simple machines. Most people worked hard at home in rural areas. A few worked in shops in towns as part of associations called guilds. The Industrial Revolution eventually took manufacturing out of the home and workshop. Power-driven machines replaced handwork, and factories developed as the best way of bringing together the machines and the workers to operate them.

Today, as what historians agreed, I also do believe that the Industrial Revolution was a great turning point in the history of the world. It changed the Western world from a basically rural and agricultural society to a basically urban and industrial society. Industrialization brought many material benefits, but it also created a large number of problems that still remain critical in the modern world. For example, most industrial countries face problems of air and water pollution.

Viewing the positive side of this era, the technological innovation theory applies to the Industrial Revolution since inventions are conceived, designs are formulated, new data are obtained, and new knowledge is generated, which was according to Science, Technology, and Society by Robert E. McGinn. It was simply a period in history where there were great and sudden changes with regards to technology.

D. Telephone
The fourth most important historical development in science and technology was the telephone. Bell Telephone Laboratories was established. It was a direct descendant of Alexander Graham Bell’s Laboratory in Boston.

Probably no means of communication has revolutionized the daily lives of ordinary people more than the telephone. The actual history of the telephone is a subject of complex dispute. The controversy began with the success of the invention and continues today. Some of the inventors credited with inventing the telephone include Antonio Meucci, Philip Reis, Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell. Bell’s experiments with his assistant Thomas Watson finally proved successful on March 10, 1876, when the first complete sentence was transmitted: “Watson, come here; I want you.”.

Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc. was established 1925 by Walter Gifford, president of AT&T as a separate entity which would take over the work being conducted by Western Electric’s engineering department’s research division. Its principal work was to design and support the equipment Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies, including switches. It also carried out consulting work for them, and US government work including Project Nike. A few workers were assigned to basic research, which attracted much attention. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in New York.

The largest facility in the country was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, which had the single largest concentration of employees (about 11,000) prior to the telecomm downturn of 2001.

At its peak, Bell Labs was the premier facility of its type, developing a wide range of revolutionary technologies, including radio astronomy, the transistor, the laser, information theory, the UNIX operating system, and the C programming language. There have been 6 Nobel Prizes awarded for work done at Bell Labs.

The telephone can be classified under technological innovation theory because it has gone through changes in designs or materials. New datas where also obtained and new knowledge were generated.

Under technological innovation, the telephone is an invention wherein it is devised by independent inventors as well as by individuals or team of workers in an industrial facility. There are factors that can help explain invention in modern Western society includes:
1. external pressures exerted by social and natural environments
2. motives of inventors and related decision makers
3. flexibility in the face of change discoveries

In the case of Bell Laboratories, had a tradition of allowing some of its researchers to pursue interesting phenomena discovered serendipitously in the course of mission oriented research, even if such discoveries currently lack any visible economic pay of potential. This is where it was recognized that inventive activity can be kept on too tight aleash.

E. Internet
December 15th, 2006 by jzyryl
How Internet came to its being can be explained through the theory of technological innovation. It creates new ways for citizens to communicate, congregate, and share information of a social nature. It is obvious that the Internet has and will continue to change the way we live. How it is changed, and how it will continue to change our lives, is the reason for so many conferences on the topic.

The Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks – a network of networks in which users at any one computer can get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). It was conceived after USSR launches the first artificial earth satellite, Sputnik by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANET. The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at one university to be able to “talk to” research computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANet’s design was that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event of a military attack or other disaster.(Whatis.com, 2006)

The Internet drives the hottest stocks on Wall Street, shapes technological innovation, and fills the pages of the world’s presses. What does this mean for society, government, commerce, and other institutions? How will the way we live, work, learn, profit, govern, and communicate change?

It has also contributed a lot for marketing companies; some of the biggest of the efficient nature of low-cost advertising and commerce through the Internet; also known as e-commerce. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast amount of people simultaneously. The Internet has also subsequently revolutionized shopping—for example; a person can order a CD online and receive it in the mail within a couple of days, or download it directly in some cases. The Internet has also greatly facilitated personalized marketing which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a specific group of people more so than any other advertising medium.

Examples of personalized marketing include online communities such as Myspace, Friendster, and others which thousands of Internet users join to advertise themselves and make friends online. Many of these users are young teens and adolescents ranging from 13 to 25 years old. In turn, when they advertise themselves they advertise interests and hobbies, which online marketing companies can use as information as to what those users will purchase online, and advertise their own companies’ products to those users.

The Internet contributed a lot to the society. For instance in the field of Education. Many have been influenced by its being the highway of information. We were able to gain knowledge by just one click.Though people sometimes tend to be so dependent because of it’s presence. Also, it has contributed a lot to the field of medicine, it was able to give us research capabilities it affords the general public, or the empowerment it affords patients and their families. Once the patient or his family, were afforded just one second opinion. Those that could (and still can afford it) can go to as many doctors that they deem necessary. On the whole, the general public can see one “extra” specialist. Today, with the vast knowledge presented on the “Internet” one can glean great sources of information. The patient is much better informed to discuss his case with his doctor, understand alternatives, side affects, the latest treatments available and the statistical probabilities of success. Furthermore, many people use the internet to get information before making a purchase. This is a way that the consumer learns much about his next purchase, before he actually goes out to purchase. Half the fun people say, is planning one’s vacation. One sits comfortably in his home and surfs the web for interesting places to visit, what can be done in those places, and then which company offers the best deals or prices. The potential tourist has the world to surf through with the help of the “mouse”.(mathumd, 1997)

From all the above we can see that the Internet is a whole new world emerging at the conclusion of the 20th century. Everyday, the Internet expands by the social, political, and economic activities of people all over the world, and its impact growth exponentially. Some of this growth in impact has been described here. In this new world there is no geographical separation and there are no borders, and all people are encouraged to participate and contribute drawing on their experiences and resources. In cyberspace actions and reactions are essentially instantaneous, and this is why the Internet is so gratifying and attractive. This is why it has impacted our society in almost all areas of human endeavor. In this report we touched on the positive aspects of the influence of the Internet on our society. As in any other field in life there are the negative aspects too. In the field of education children can gain access to areas that are not suitable and dangerous, (Littleton Colorado, April 1999).

source: www.wikipedia.com; Robert E. Grinn, Science Technology and Society, 1991,2002